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TECHNICAL  DRAWING  SERIES 

BY   GARDNER    C.    ANTHONY 

Anthony's  Mechanical  Drawing,    93  pages  of  text  and  32 

plates.    Goth.    $1.50 

Anthony's  Machine  Drawing.    65  pages  of  text  and  is  plates, 

containing  40  illustrations.    Cloth.    $1.50 

Anthony's  Essentials  of  Gearing.    34  pages  of  text  and  is  plates 

containing  26  illustrations.    Cloth.    $1.50 

Daniels's  Free  Hand  Lettering.  34  pages  of  text  and  n  plates. 

Cloth.    $0.75 

Sent  postage  prepaid,  upon  receipt  of  price,  by  the  publishers. 

D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

Boston  New  York  Chicago 


£ecl)m£ttl    Drawing    0erus. 


A    TEXT-BOOK 


OF 


FREE-HAND    LETTERING. 


FRANK    T.    DANIELS,    A.    M     B., 

FOKMKKI.Y  ASSISTANT  I'ROKESSOR  OK  Civil,  ENGINEERING  IN.  TUFTS  COLLEGE. 

I 


Copyright  1895,   by  Frank    T.   Daniels'.,    " 


BOSTON,  U.  S.  A. : 
D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS. 

1901. 


T37 

T>3 


PREFACE. 

THIS  little  book  is  published  in  the  belief  that  in  every  school  where  technical  drawing 
is  taught  there  is  need  of  a  text-book  setting  forth  the  elementary  principles  of  the  formation 
of  letters,  of  their  combination  to  form  words,  and  of  the  arrangement  of  words  in  titles. 
That  such  a  system,  for  use  in  such  schools,  should  begin  with  the  most  elementary  work, 
every  teacher  of  the  subject  knows. 

The  features  to  which  attention  is  invited   are : 

1.  The  preliminary  exercises  which  offer  preparation   in   manual  skill   and  in  estimation 
of  values. 

2.  The  absence  of  rules  and  arbitrary  expedients,  and  in  their  place  reasons  from  which 
the  student  makes  his  own  rules. 

3.  Variety,  as  much  as  is  consistent  with  thorough  practice  in  fundamental  styles,  though 
possibly  at  cost  of  logical  arrangement. 

4.  The  Plates,  which  are  illustrations  of  principles  set  forth  in  the  text,  quite  as  much  as 
definite  exercises  for  practice. 

5.  The  laying  out  of  exercises  in  detail,  thus  making  it  possible  for  instructors  who  have 
charge  of  large  classes  to    give  their  attention  to  matters  of  instruction.     The  student's  pro- 
gress, also,  is  measured  by  his  adaptation  to  the  work. 

Most  of  the  matter  has  been  given  to  first  year  students  in  engineering  at  Tufts  College, 
with  such  results  as  warrant  the  belief  that  the  system  leads  to  rapidity  as  well  as  to  excellence 
of  execution. 

I  express  my  indebtedness  to  Prof.  Gardner  C.  Anthony  of  this  College,  for  valuable 
suggestions. 

Tufts  College,  Mass.,  August,  1895.  FRANK   T.    DANIELS. 


CONTENTS. 


I.     INTRODUCTION,       3 

Paper,  3  ;  Pencil,  3  ;  Limiting  Lines,  4  ;   Use  of  Triangle,  4  ;  Use  of  Scale,  4. 

II.     PRELIMINARY  EXERCISES .  5 

Exercise,  1,5;  Exercise  2,  7  ;  Exercise  3,  8. 

III.  FORMS  OF  GOTHIC  LETTERS,       ' 9 

IV.  SPACING  OF  LETTERS 15 

V.     CONSTRUCTION  OF  TITLES, 16 

Rule  for  Spacing  Lines 18 

VI.     LOWER-CASE  LETTERS, 19 

VII.     SLANT  LETTERS 20 

Modification  of  Gothic  Letters, 22 

VIII.     INKING,     . ' 23 

IX.     ROMAN  LETTERS  AND  FIGURES, 26 

Italic  Roman 28 

X.     OLD  ENGLISH,  GERMAN  TEXT,  AND  ROUND  WRITING, 29 

XI.     MISCELLANEOUS  STYLES 31 

XII.     ORNAMENTATION,        : 32 


CONCLUSION 33 


INTRODUCTION. 

SUCH  lettering  as  a  draftsman  is  called  upon  to  do,  must  be  done  not  only  well,  but 
rapidly.  To  secure  either  speed  or  well-balanced  proportion,  the  student  must  be  trained  to 
do  good  lining  free  liand,  and  to  estimate  accurately  both  distance  and  direction.  The 
following  exercises  are  designed  to  secure  such  results. 

Many  combinations  of  lines  and  letters  are  very  deceptive  to  the  eye,  hence  the  impossi- 
bility of  giving  rules,  and  the  necessity  of  learning  the  reasons  for  such  deceptive  appearances 
and  their  probable  amount  for  any  given  case.  Good  lettering  requires  careful  attention  to 
matters  of  smallest  detail. 

The  remarks  upon  each  exercise  should  be  read  carefully  before  practice  is  begun,  and 
suggestions  followed.  It  is  the  carefulness  of  practice  rather  than  its  amount  that  is  of  value. 
The  elementary  things  are  few,  but  they  must  be  learned  first  and  thoroughly. 

PAPER.  —  This  should  be  a  good  quality  of  drawing  paper.  The  best  German  paper  will 
do  for  pencil  work.  For  inking,  a  hard,  smooth  surface  is  recommended.  The  exercises  are 
intended  to  go  upon  sheets  7  X  10  ii  ches,  with  one  inch  margin  all  around.  The  sheets 
should  be  tacked  to  a  small  drawing  board  with  long  edges  horizontal. 

PENCIL. — The  best  drawing  pencils  must  be  used,  grade  H  being  the  best  adapted 
to  general  work.  The  care  of  the  point  is  of  prime  importance.  With  a  sharp  knife  cut  away 


4 

the  wood,  beginning  the  cut  an  inch  back  from  the  end,  leaving  at  least  4  inch  of  the  "  lead  " 
bare.  The  point  cannot  be  properly  finished  with  the  knife,  but  must  be  ground  upon  a  piece 
of  fine  sandpaper  fastened  to  a  flat  strip,  or  better  still  upon  a  file  such  as  is  sold  for  that 
purpose.  Rub  the  pencil  upon  the  file,  holding  the  latter  in  the  left  hand.  The  point  must 
be  long,  smooth,  and  conical,  but  not  quite  so  sharp  as  can  be  made.  Hold  the  pencil  about 
2^  inches  from  the  end,  and  be  careful  that  the  forefinger  is  but  slightly  bent.  Exercise  a 
constant  care  not  to  pinch  the  pencil,  otherwise  the  muscles  will  soon  tire  and  good  lines  can 
not  be  made.  Roll  the  pencil  slightly  often  enough  to  prevent  the  point  being  worn  flat. 
Sharpen  frequently. 

LIMITING  LINES. — These  are  ruled  lines  to  limit  the  height  of  letters.  A  T  square  is 
most  convenient  for  drawing  them.  They  are  necessary  but  undesirable  adjuncts  to  the  work; 
undesirable  because  their  presence  lends  a  slightly  distorted  appearance  to  some  letters. 
They  must  be  drawn  light,  fine,  and  accurately  parallel.  The  "  chisel"  pointed  pencil  is  best 
for  drawing  them,  but  the  cone  point  will  do  if  it  be  rolled  in  the  fingers  as  the  line  pro- 
gresses, thus  producing  it  of  uniform  thickness. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  erase  part  of  a  limiting  line,  it  must  be  drawn  in  again  before 
work  is  done  at  that  place. 

A  TRIANGLE  will  be  useful  for  testing  the  direction  of  lines. 

A  SCALE  should  be  used  to  lay  off  distances  between  limiting  lines  and  for  testing  distances 
that  have  been  estimated. 


II. 

PRELIMINARY    EXERCISES. 

PLATE   1. 

Draw  limiting  lines  according  to  figures  given.  Each  line  of  each  exercise  will  extend 
across  the  sheet,  leaving  a  margin  of  one  inch  all  around  ;  thus  each  exercise  will  fill  a  sheet  of 
practice  paper. 

EXERCISE  1. 

LINE  1. —  ESTIMATION  OF  DISTANCE  AND  DIRECTION. —  Make  a  dot  upon  the  upper 
line  where  the  exercise  will  begin,  then  another  vertically  below  this  upon  the  lower  line. 
Draw  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  point  a  fine,  light  line  with  one  stroke  of  the  pencil.  Go 
over  the  line  as  many  times  as  may  be  necessary  to  make  it  straight  and  firm.  Now  place 
another  pair  of  points  at  an  estimated  distance  of  |  inch  from  the  first  pair  and  draw  the  second 
line.  After  having  drawn  three  or  four  lines,  test  to  see  that  they  are  vertical,  and  \  inch 
apart.  If  not,  do  not  erase  them,  but  seek  to  correct  in  following  lines.  In  the  latter  half  of 
the  exercise  try  to  dispense  with  the  points  upon  limiting  lines. 

LINE  2. —  Draw  in  pairs.  A  dash  on  the  upper  line  forms  a  pair  with  the  one  below  it. 
Draw  upper  line  first,  and  finish  one  pair  before  beginning  another. 

Be  careful  that  pairs  are  at  the  correct  distance  apart.  Here  the  width  of  a  space  Is 
compared  with  the  length  of  a  line. 


LINE  3. —  Make  the  angle  between  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  sharp  and  decided.  Some 
difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  estimating  the  distance  from  L  to  T,  as  we  must  here  pass 
from  the  lower  to  the  upper  line.  When  the  L  is  finished  place  a  point  vertically  above  its 
right  hand  limit,  and  from  this  estimate  the  distance  to  the  beginning  of  the  T. 

Notice  that  when  these  letters  are  of  the  same  width,  the  T  looks  much  the  narrower. 

LINE  4. —  This  is  a  valuable  exercise,  in  comparing  a  vertical  with  a  horizontal  distance. 
Point  where  lower  end  of  first  line  will  be.  Point  vertically  above  this,  and  to  the  right  upon 
upper  line  point  a  distance  equal  to  distance  between  limiting  lines. 

Join  last  point  with  first  at  a  single  stroke.  In  finishing  up  lines  do  not  do  it  by  a  series 
of  short  strokes  or  "  hitches,"  but  let  them  be  as  long  and  free  as  possible. 

LINE  5. —  A  little  more  difficult  than  the  last,  because  the  direction  of  lines  is  contrary  to 
common  experience.  Draw  from  the  top  downward,  resting  the  hand  upon  the  paper  well 
above  the  line. 

LINE  6. — This  must  be  very  carefully  pointed,  as  follows  :  On  the  lower  line  estimate  the 
extreme  width  of  figure,  |  inch,  and  bisect  it.  Point  upon  upper  line  vertically  above  bisect- 
ing point;  or  a  square  may  first  be  very  lightly  outlined  and  its  upper  side  bisected. 

The  latter  half  of  the  exercise  may  consist  of  Vs. 

Notice  that  when  height  and  width  are  equal  the  height  appears  greater. 

LINE  7. — This  line  is  for  additional  practice  upon  such  of  the  above  work  as  shall 
have  proved  most  difficult. 


EXERCISE    2. 

This  exercise  should  be  pointed  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  in  Exercise  1.  Detailed 
directions  will  not  be  needed.  Be  careful  when  it  is  possible  to  point  the  whole  of  a  combina- 
tion of  lines  before  drawing  any  of  them,  for  the  presence  of  lines,  especially  diagonal  or 
curved  ones,  greatly  modifies  our  estimate  of  direction  and  distance. 

LINE  1. — Omit  pointing  in  latter  half  of  exercise,  but  draw  the  vertical  lines  first,  finish- 
ing each  letter  before  beginning  the  next. 

LINE  2. — Draw  vertical  lines  first,  bisect  upon  the  lower  line  and  add  other  members. 
Draw  from  top  downward. 

LINE  3. — In  pointing  this  be  careful  that  the  corners  of  a  square  are  marked  out,  that  the 
letter  may  not  appear  to  tip  forward  or  backward.  Try  a  few  without  pointing. 

LINE  4. — Distances  here  must  be  carefully  estimated  before  any  lines  are  drawn.  Com- 
pare apparent  widths  of  V's  and  X's. 

LINE  5. — Draw  the  vertical  line  ;  point  for  the  top  of  upper  inclined  line,  then  for  its 
lower  end — two-fifths  up  the  vertical  line.  Draw  the  inclined  line  and  point  for  the  last  line, 
which  joins  the  second  at  one-third  its  length  from  lower  end. 

LINE  6. — Very  lightly  outline  the  rectangle  which  will  contain  the  W;  bisect  upper  and 
lower  sides,  and  bisect  each  of  these  divisions  upon  the  lower  line;  join  points.  After  a  few 
have  been  made,  dispense  with  vertical  sides  of  rectangle,  but  place  all  points  as  long  as  nec- 
essary. 

Note  that  alternate  lines  are  parallel.      Compare  apparent  widths  of  M's  and  W's. 

LINE  7. — Additional  practice. 


8 

EXERCISE    3. 

Much  patience  will  be  needed  with  this  exercise,  but  it  is  important  and  should  be  well 
done.  When  troubled  to  get  a  curve  symmetrical,  turn  the  paper  so  as  to  look  at  the  work 
from  different  sides.  This  will  help  to  determine  where  the  fault  lies. 

LINE  1. — In  pointing  these  quadrants  remember  that  they  may  be  circumscribed  by  a 
square.  It  will  be  well  to  sketch  lightly  the  left  hand  side  of  the  square.  In  drawing  the 
curve  .remember  that  the  right  lower  corner  of  the  square  is  its  centre  and  that  the  upper  and 
left  sides  are  tangent  to  it. 

The  temptation  will  be  great  to  draw  by  hitches.  This  may  be  necessary  at  first,  but  the 
long,  free  stroke  must  be  attempted.  Draw  either  upward  or  downward.  When  this  arc  is 
drawn  as  part  of  a  letter  it  will  be  drawn  downward.  Use  compasses  to  test. 

LINE  2. — Here  the  right  side  of  the  square  should  be  sketched  in. 

LINE  3. —  Be  careful  that  a  square  includes  the  arcs;  that  they  are  tangent  to  upper  and 
lower  lines  respectively,  and  that  a  vertical  line  drawn  through  the  point  where  the  two  arcs 
join  each  other  would  be  tangent  to  each. 

LINES  4  AND  5. —The  semicircle  occupies  a  rectangle  whose  height  is  twice  its  width. 
Point  in  accordance  with  this,  and  point  where  middle  of  arc  will  come.  Sharply  define  ends 
of  arcs. 

LINE  6. —  Draw  the  vertical  lines  first,  adding  the  semicircular  lower  part. 

There  is  to  be  noticed  here  the  difficulty  of  drawing  straight  parallel  lines,  knowing  that 
they  are  to  be  joined  by  a  curve.  This  knowledge  is  likely  to  lead  to  lines  either  curving 
slightly  at  their  lower  ends,  or  converging  downward. 


III. 

FORMS  OF  GOTHIC  LETTERS. 

PLATE  2. 

Before  commencing  the  work  of  this  plate  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  some  of  the 
general  principles  governing  the  forms  of  letters. 

First  of  all  they  must  have  an  appearance  of  stability.  In  some  letters  as  F,  T,  and  P 
it  is  not  possible  to  avoid  a  top-heavy  effect,  but  in  general  the  correct  form  in  this  respect  is 
secured : — • 

1.  By  making  the   upper   part  of  the  letter  narrower  than  the   lower  as  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
Plate  10. 

2.  By  placing  some  horizontal  members  above  the  centre  as   in   the    H,    Fig.  2,  Plate  10. 

3.  By  a  combination  of  the  above  as  in  the   E,   B,  and   S,    Fig.  3,  Plate  10. 
These  considerations  apply  to  figures  as  well  as  to  letters. 

Not  only  must  the  general  form  of  each  letter  be  attended  to,  but  it  will  be  found  that  the 
good  appearance  of  a  combination  of  letters  will  demand  that  some  of  them  be  larger  than 
others. 

In  line  6,  Exercise  1,  Plate  1,  it  was  noted  that  the  width  of  the  figure  seemed  less  than 
its  height.  Also  that  in  Exercise  2  the  W,  although  really  wider  than  the  M,  seemed  hardly 
as  wide.  Refer  now  to  Fig.  4,  Plate  10.  The  E  and  O  are  of  exactly  the  same  height  and 


10 

width,  yet  the  O  looks  smaller  than  the  E ;  not  only  narrower  but  shorter.  It  appears  from 
this  that  letters  composed  of  curves  are  affected  as  are  those  made  up  of  inclined  straight  lines. 

The  reason  for  these  deceptive  appearances  is  a  psychological  one;  under  certain  condi- 
tions the  mental  picture  of  what  is  seen  through  the  eyes  is  distorted,  and  no  amount  of  knowl- 
edge or  experience  enables  us  to  set  these  erroneous  impressions  right. 

The  general  principle  may  be  studied  to  advantage  from  Fig.  5,  Plate  10. 

The  width  of  the  square  taken  anywViere  is  its  average  width,  and  there  is  no  deception  as 
to  this  dimension.  The  second  figure,  though  really  of  the  same  width  at  base  as  the  square, 
gives  the  impression  that  it  is  narrower.  This  is  due  to  the  effect  of  varying  widths.  The  eye 
cannot  separate  the  width  at  base  from  widths  taken  all  along  from  base  to  top,  but  tries  to 
accept  their  average  for  the  extreme  width — and  partly  succeeds. 

The  same  thing  has  already  been  exhibited  by  the  O  in  which,  again,  the  width  is  vari- 
able. But  the  O  is  apparently  contracted  in  height  as  well  as  in  width,  and  for  exactly  the 
same  reason.  Hence  we  may  say  in  general  that  when  the  height  or  width  of  a  letter  is  con- 
stantly changing  the  eye  seeks  to  average  the  varying  height  or  width,  and  the  letter  must  be 
made  higher  or  wider,  or  both,  to  counterbalance  the  result.  No  general  rule  can  be  given 
for  the  amount  of  such  increase,  since  it  will  vary  under  different  conditions  even  in  the  same 
letter. 

In  the  M  and  W  it  is  always  evident  that  they  occupy  more  space  horizontally  than  for 
instance  the  E,  though  they  always  occupy  more  than  is  apparent;  but  in  the  O,  C,  A,  V,  etc., 
the  increase  must  be  only  enough  to  make  the  letters  appear  the  same  size  as  E,  H,  N,  etc. 

Some  exceptions  to  the  above  rule  must  be  made,  as  in  the  case  of  the  B.  If  the  letter 
be  so  wide  as  compared  with  its  height  that  portions  of  the  top  and  bottom  lines  are  straight 


1 1 

and  horizontal,  as  is  generally  the  case,  no  increase  in  height  is  necessary.  The  width  needs 
no  increase,  partly  because  of  the  straight  line  which  limits  it  at  the  left,  but  principally 
because  of  the  middle  horizontal  line,  which  breaks  the  outline  into  two  loops,  each  wider  than 
it  is  high.  Notice  that  the  D,  having  a  single  curve  for  its  right  hand  side,  stands  in  greater 
need  of  increase  of  width  than  does  the  B.  With  the  general  principles  in  mind,  the  student 
will  do  much  better  to  cultivate  and  rely  upon  correct  appearance  than  to  seek  arbitrary  rules. 

A  complete  alphabet  will  now  be  studied,  taking  the  letters  in  groups  and  noting  the 
peculiarities  of  each. 

These  Gothic  letters,  though  of  the  simplest  sort,  exemplify  most  of  the  essential  features 
of  all  styles. 

Those  letters  whose  widths  appear  what  they  really  are,  may  be  called  normal  width  let- 
ters, or  simply  normal,  and  for  present  practice  may  be  drawn  "square,"  i.  e.  with  width  and 
height  equal.  The  containing  square  may  be  lightly  sketched  in,  but  pointing  will  be  sufficient 
in  most  cases. 

Frequent  measurement  of  estimated  distances  must  be  made.  The  normal  width  marked 
upon  the  edge  of  a  card  will  be  useful  for  this  purpose. 

Suggestions  for  pointing,  and  in  some  cases  for  order  of  strokes  will  be  seen  upon  the 
plate.  When  dotted  lines  are  given  with  pointing  they  should  be  sketched  in  before  the  letter 
is  begun;  where  drawn  upon  a  finished  letter  they  simply  call  attention  to  some  feature  of  the 
letter. 

£_      Upper  horizontal  line  shorter  than  lower,  and  middle  line  a  little  above  centre. 
F       Short  horizontal  line  a  little  above  centre. 


12 

H.     Horizontal  line  above  centre. 

I.  As  this  letter  occupies  practically  no  space  horizontally  it  will  look  crowded  when 
written  with  others  unless  given  considerable  space. 

I.  A  little  wider  than  the  normal  because  the  only  line  determining  its  width  is  cut  in 
two  by  the  vertical,  and  the  effect  is  something  between  the  whole  line  and  either  of 
its  parts. 

A.  Higher  and  wider  than  normal,  and  horizontal  member  below  centre. 
K.     Top  narrower  than  base. 

M.     Considerably  wider  than  normal.      Draw  vertical  lines  first. 

N.     Draw  vertical  lines  first. 

V.      As  wide  at  top  as  A  is  at  base.     Draw  slightly  below  the  line. 

W.    Much  wider  than  normal.      Alternate  lines  parallel.     Generally  no  increase  in  height  is 
necessary. 

X.     Narrow  at  top. 

Y.     About  the  width  of  A. 

Z.     Slightly  narrow  at  top. 

B.  Narrow  at  top  and  middle  line  above  centre.       The  first  example  of  one  of  the  most 

troublesome  curves.       Observe  that  it  is  symmetrical  about  a  horizontal  line,  which 
should  be  drawn  if  necessary.      Also  turn  paper  so  as  to  look  at  it  from  one  side. 

D.     Right  side  a  semicircle. 


13 

J.      About  three-fourths  normal  width.     Lower  part  a  semicircle. 
P.      Curve  joins  vertical  member  a  little  below  centre. 

R.  Upper  curved  portion  narrow  and  joining  vertical  at  centre  or  slightly  below.  The 
tail  joins  at  point  where  curve  ends,  or  a  little  way  along  straight  part ;  never  on 
curve  itself. 

U.     Straight  parts  truly  vertical  and  lower  part  semicircular. 

O.     Compare  with  other  letters  to  give  proper  increase  in  size. 
C.     Slight  contraction  in  width  of  upper  part. 
G.      Horizontal  line  only  a  little  below  centre. 

S.  In  this  "  square"  S  there  is  a  little  at  the  middle  which  is  practically  straight  and  hori- 
zontal and  is  above  centre.  The  upper  part  also  is  narrowed.  The  upper  and  the 
lower  part  is  each  symmetrical  about  its  own  horizontal  axis,  which  draw  if  needed, 
and  end  each  curve  tangent  to  a  vertical  line.  The  second  stage  shows  how  the 
curve  differs  from  the  corresponding  part  of  the  O. 

FIGURES. —  Careful  practice  here  will  make  other  and  more  difficult  styles  much  easier. 

2.  Middle   portion   slightly  below   centre.      Curve  at  lower  left-hand   of  small    radius,  so 

that  curved  part  will  end  in  a  vertical  line. 

3.  A  portion  of  the  S  with  a  slight  addition. 

4.  Above  the  line  and  of  extra  width. 


14 

5.  Curved  part  of  generous  size  and  symmetrical  about  a  horizontal  axis. 

6.  The  general  outline  symmetrical  about  a  vertical  axis,  and  the  lower  closed  part  about 

a  horizontal  one.     With  these  conditions  the   6   is   not  exactly  upon  the   outline  of 
the   O. 

/  .     Lower  line  may  be  straight. 

8.  The  S  with  some  additions. 

9.  The  closed  part  is  here  contracted,  otherwise  like  6  inverted. 

As  the   O,   S,  etc.,  are  but  slightly    widened    they    will    for    convenience  be   classed  as 
normal  letters,  and  we  may  make  this  classification : 

1.  Normals. 

2.  Narrow,  I   and  J. 

3.  Slightly  widened,  A,  T,  V,  Y. 

4.  Much  widened,   M. 

5.  Very  much  widened,   W. 

Some  letters  will  need  additional  practice,  opportunity  for  which    is   offered  at  bottom   of 
sheet. 


IV. 
SPACING    OF    LETTERS. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  different  combinations  of  lines  and  letters  lead  to  different 
effects.  Before  beginning  to  put  letters  together  we  shall  need  to  notice  some  cases  in  point. 

In  line  3,  Exercise  I,  it  was  shown  that  the  T's  and  L's  seem  to  be  arranged  in  pairs;  yet 
the  distance  between  any  two  measured  horizontally  is  the  same  as  between  any  other  two.  In 
estimating  the  distance  from  T  to  L  we  look  at  once  to  the  upper  line  and  all  seems  as  it 
really  is ;  but  in  the  combination  L  T  we  look  from  the  lower  line  where  L  ends,  to  the  upper 
where  T  begins.  This  gives  an  erroneous  idea  of  the  real  distance — measured  horizontally — 
between  them.  In  such  a  combination,  therefore,  the  space  must  be  reduced.  The  beginning 
of  the  T  might  even  be  vertically  above  the  end  of  the  L.  This  contraction  of  space  may 
occur  when  the  letters  in  question  have  the  space  between  them  measured  upon  the  same  lim- 
iting line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  Plate  10.  Here  L  and  A  should  be  separated  but  little,  because 
their  tops  are  so  far  apart, — another  example  of  "  the  eye  averaging  values."  The  A  and  M 
are  separated  a  little  further  and  the  M  and  E  still  further. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  I  must  have  more  than  the  ordinary 
space.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  nearest  part  of  an  adjoining  letter  is  a  straight  line 
parallel  to  the  I,  as  in  HIGH,  and  is  still  more  marked  in  HILT.  Letters  whose  sides  are 
curves  may  be  rather  near  their  neighbors. 


i6 

The  matters  spoken  of  above  must  not  be  overdone.  Exceptions  to  general  rules  are  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  unbalanced  appearances.  After  a  word  is  sketched  look  at  it  AS  A 
WHOLE.  Sometimes  bad  spacing  may  best  be  perceived  by  looking  at  the  word  with  eyes  half 
closed  and  somewhat  out  of  focus. 

As  examples  for  practices  in  addition  to  those  given  above,  may  be  taken  the  words  High- 
land, Late,  Waver,  Room. 

V. 
CONSTRUCTION    OF    TITLES. 

PLATE    3. 

The  title  of  a  map  or  plan  shows  what  portion  of  a  town,  state,  etc.,  the  map  or  plan 
represents;  the  scale  to  which  it  is  drawn;  the  date  of  finishing  the  drawing;  and  sometimes 
the  name  of  the  surveyor  or  engineer  in  charge;  thus,  Map  of  WUlowda.lt,  Mass,  Scale  4.00 
feet  to  i  inch.  1896.  Plan  of  Horn  Pond  and  Vicinity.  Scale  80  feet  to  i  in.  July  ij, 
1894.  J.  A.  Mason,  Surveyor. 

If  a  plan  is  made  by,  or  concerns,  a  corporation,  city,  or  commission,  the  name  of  that 
body  often  stands  first  as  a  part  of  the  title. 

On  maps  the  outline  is  generally  irregular,  and  the  title  is  placed  wherever  the  largest 
open  space  occurs,  sometimes  even  within  the  outline  of  the  area  shown  Plans  and  working 
drawings  should  have  the  title  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  for  when  such  drawings  are  filed 
away  a  given  one  may  be  found  more  easily  with  the  title  thus  placed. 


17 

The  title  for  a  drawing  concerning  a  machine  or  structure  shows  the  name  of  the  machine 
or  structure;   declares  whether  it  is  a  "  general"  drawing  or  one  containing  details,  sections,  or 
elevations;    has  the  scale  and  date;    and  sometimes  the  name  of  the  engineer,  corporatmp, 
commission. 

•*J     ,»,),  /s 

As  a  study  of  the  combination  of  words  to  form  such  a  title  take  the  following:" 

Details  of  Steam  Crane  No.  15.     Scale  3  in.  =  i  ft.      1896. 

The  thing  of  first  importance  is  that  the  drawing  relates  to  STEAM  CRANE  No.  15  ;  hence 
these  words  will  be  made  conspicuous  by  being  formed  of  comparatively  large  letters.  That 
the  drawing  shows  DETAILS  OF  the  Crane  is  the  fact  of  next  importance.  The  whole  will  be 
arranged  something  like  this: 

DETAILS     OF 

STEAM    CRANE    No.    15. 

SCALE    3    IN.=  1     FT. 
1896. 

The  first  thing  in  laying  this  out  upon  the  drawing  would  be  to  fix  upon  the  position  and 
size  of  letters  for  the  principal  line.  These  would  depend  upon  size  of  sheet,  space  available 
for  title,  and  purpose  of  drawing. 

Suppose  •j'g  inch  to  have  been  selected  as  height  of  letters  in  "Steam  Crane  No.  15." 
The  height  for  "  Details  of"  may  be  -f^  inch,  for  the  scale  |  inch  and  for  the  date  T8g  inch. 

The  space  between  lines  must  also  be  fixed  upon  before  the  limiting  lines  can  be  laid 
down,  as  all  of  them  should  be  before  any  lettering  is  done. 


i8 

A  good  general  rule  is  : — Make  the  space  between  two  adjacent  lines  of  words  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  shortest  letters  in  either. 

Thus  in  the  above  example  the  space  between  the  first  two  lines  will  be  ^g-  inch,  which  is 
the  height  of  the  letters  for  "  Details  of,"  and  other  spaces  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  rule. 
The  whole  is  plainly  indicated  in  Plate  3  which  may  now  be  made. 

Having  drawn  all  limiting  lines,  do  the  principal  part  of  the  title,  beginning  it  at  the  place 
indicated.  The  letters  are  still  "square  "  and  spaces  between  words  something  less  than  the 
normal  width  of  letters. 

Having  finished  this  line  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  find  the  centre  of  its  length  and  through 
it  draw  a  faint  vertical  line,  about  which  the  remainder  of  the  title  must  be  symmetrical.  At 
present  the  method  will  be  to  count  the  letters  in  each  line  and  set  off  half  of  them  as  marking 
the  middle  of  the  line.  In  doing  this,  however,  we  must  give  due  weight  to  the  effect  of 
spaces  between  words,  and  to  letters  much  wider  or  narrower  than  the  normal.  Taking 
"  Details  of,"  we  shall  see  that  of  the  nine  letters  the  I  is  the  middle  one ;  its  narrowness, 
therefore,  will  not  need  to  be  considered.  There  are  no  letters  of  great  width,  the  T  and  A 
being  slightly  wide.  But  the  end  of  the  T  may  be  vertically  above  the  beginning  of  the  A, 
thus  taking  up  the  effect  of  their  extra  width.  The  space  between  words,  then,  is  the  only 
thing  really  needing  consideration.  As  this  comes  in  the  latter  half  of  the  line,  its  effect  will 
be  to  shift  the  beginning  of  the  line  to  the  left  by  an  amount  equal  to  one-half  the  width  of 
the  space.  So  that  I,  instead  of  being  the  centre  of  the  line,  will  be  forced  a  little  to  the  left. 

Draw  in  the  latter  half  of  the  line  first;  measure  its  length  from  the  vertical  centre  line, 
and  lay  off  this  distance  at  the  left  of  the  centre  line ;  this  will  be  the  point  at  which  to  begin 
the  word  "  Details."  In  the  same  way  work  in  the  scale  and  date.  Several  trials  may  be 
necessary  in  the  scale  as  it  is  much  broken,  and  consequently  difficult  to  estimate. 


19 

In  case  of  a  long  line  the  left-hand  half  would  have  to  be  made  backward  to  insure  good 
spacing.  Much  practice  is  necessary  to  successfully  join  the  halves  of  a  line,  each  half  being 
drawn  forward,  unless,  as  in  this  case,  the  line  is  short.  In  working  backward  the  letters  must 
be  carefully  pointed,  or  their  inclosing  rectangles  sketched,  otherwise  this  part  of  the  line  will 
probably  occupy  more  than  its  proper  space. 

Looking  at  the  title  as  a  whole  it  is  seen  to  be  a  little  more  than  four  times  as  long  as 
wide.  This  is  not  a  good  proportion  ;  the  remedy  is  either  to  reduce  the  width  of  letters  in 
the  principal  line  or  to  spread  the  lines  farther  apart.  The  former  would  be  better  here,  though 
the  latter  would  be  justifiable,  and  should  be  resorted  to  rather  than  making  the  letters  in  long 
lines  so  narrow  as  to  injure  their  appearance.  The  spreading  apart  of  lines  is  avoided  as 
giving  a  ragged,  disassociated  appearance  to  the  title  as  a  whole. 

VI. 
LOWER-CASE    LETTERS. 

PLATE  4. 

The  general  remarks  concerning  capitals  apply  in  these  small  or  lower-case  letters.  Skill 
in  making  the  o  will  be  of  great  service  here,  as  its  curves  occur  in  so  very  many  of  the  let- 
ters. In  outlining  curved  members  imagine  that  the  complete  o  is  to  be  made.  In  the  b,  d, 
g,  p,  and  q  the  oval  part  should  be  made  as  a  complete,  closed  curve  independent  of  the 
straight  parts.  Note  that  the  elements  of  all  letters  are  very  simple,  being  only  the  o  and 


2O 

the  straight  line ;  however,  the  straight  line  must  be  straight  and  must  join  the  curves  smoothly. 
In  addition  note  the  following  points,  which  are  true  for  most  styles  of  lower-case  letters  : 

The  b,  d,f,  h,  k  and  I  extend  above  the  other  letters;  their  height  is  that  of  capitals  viith 
which  they  would  be  written. 

The  g,  j,  p,  q  and  y  extend  below  as  far  as  b,  d,  etc.,  do  above. 

The  t  is  between  the  short  and  stem  letters  in  height. 

The  remaining  letters  are  about  three-fifths  the  height  of  capitals  and  stem  letters. 

The  second  and  third  lines  of  the  sheet  are  to  be  repetitions  of  the  first. 

Figures  when  written  with  both  capitals  and  lower-case  letters  should  have  the  height  of 
capitals  when  there  are  but  few  of  them,  or  when  they  play  an  important  ^art.  When  numer- 
ous, as  in  tables,  tney  may  nave  the  height  of  t.  Clearness  is  the  all-important  thing,  and 
must  not  be  sacrificed.  In  the  exercise  at  the  bottom  of  the  Plate  the  spacing  of  lines  is  still 
in  accordance  with  the  general  rule. 

VII. 
SLANT    LETTERS. 

PLATE   5. 

As  to  the  proper  amount  of  inclination  to  give  the  slant  letters,  there  is  difference  of 
opinion.  That  here  recommended  is  shown  on  the  Plate  and  is  obtained  as  follows  : 

Draw  a  horizontal  line,  and  at  its  right-hand  end  erect  a  vertical.  From  the  vertex  of  the 
angle  thus  formed  lay  off  three  units  upon  the  horizontal  line  and  eight  of  the  same  units  upon 


21 

the  vertical.  The  line  joining  the  two  points  thus  placed  will  give  the  proper  slant.  This 
corresponds  to  an  angle  of  about  6g°-2^'  with  the  horizontal.  At  this  angle  are  to  be  drawn 
all  lines  which  in  the  upright  letters  are  vertical,  the  horizontal  lines  suffering  no  change  in 
direction. 

A  triangle  worked  upon  the  T  square  blade  will  be  found  useful  in  testing  slant. 

Draw  the  first  two  lines  of  letters,  pointing  if  necessary  and  testing  the  slant  often.  The 
width  of  normal  letters  is  about  seven-eighths  their  height.  Before  trying  letters  containing  curves, 
a  special  study  of  the  O  is  necessary.  Draw  accurately  a  symmetrical,  upright  O  as  shown,  using 
instruments  if  necessary.  Divide  the  vertical  axis  into  several  parts,  working  each  way  from 
its  middle,  and  through  each  point  of  division  draw  indefinite  lines  to  the  right.  Crossing 
these  lines  draw  a  slant  line.  Now  upon  the  edge  of  a  slip  of  paper  measure  off  the  distances 
a,  b,  etc.,  and  mark  them  off  from  the  slant  line  each  side,  as  at  a'  and  b'.  Join  the  points 
thus  produced  and  the  proper  form  for  the  inclined  O  will  result. 

Notice  carefully  that  the  slant  line  is  not  an  axis  of  symmetry,  and  the  general  effect  with 
reference  to  this  line  is  that  of  a  closed  curve  whose  upper  right-  and  lower  left-hand  portions 
are  full  and  well  rounded,  while  the  upper  left-  and  lower  right-hand  portions  are  rather  flat. 
Notice,  too,  that  the  highest  and  lowest  points  of  the  curve  are  on  the  slant  line. 

These  characteristics  should  be  studied  thoroughly  and  the  O  practiced  until  it  can  be 
made  well,  for  nearly  all  the  curves  used  in  the  slant  letters  are  portions  of  it.  Much  assist- 
ance in  forming  letters  containing  curves  may  be  had  by  first  lightly  outlining  the  O,  then 

taking  such  parts  of  it  as  are  needed;   even  the  S  is  but  a  slight  modification  of  it. 

* 
Construct  the  exercises  in  their  order,  always  estimating  direction,  and  occasionally  testing 

by  comparison  with  slant  line. 


22 


MODIFICATION   OF  THE    FOREGOING   STYLE. 

PLATE    6. 

By  slight  changes  the  Gothic  letters  may  be  made  into  another  style,  in  effect  at  least. 
The  changes  in  the  capitals  consist  mainly  in  the  addition  of  short,  horizontal  lines  called 
"ceriphs"  or  "spurs,"  to  finish  off  the  ends  of  upright  lines  as  in  the  H  and  U,  a'nd  in  extend- 
ing some  horizontal  lines  across  the  uprights  as  in  B,  F,  and  L.  A  few  short  lines  ("kerns") 
upon  the  slant  are  added  as  at  the  ends  of  S  and  Z. 

The  lower-case  letters  are  more  difficult.     Their  successful  execution  depends  upon, — 

1.  The  curves  being  the  inclined  0,  or  the  proper  portion  of  it. 

2.  The  spurs  being  straight  and  horizontal. 

3.  The  uprights  being  straight  till  the  curve  in  which  some  of  them  end  is  really  reached. 
Notice  that  in  no  case,  excepting  q,  does  the  spur  extend  to  the  right  of  its  upright. 

4.  The  slant  being  uniform. 

The  curve  with  which  a,  d,  h,  and  many  others  end  may  be  studied  to  advantage  in  line 
6,  where  in  the  word  "  drilled  "  it  is  shown  that  this  curve  is  such  as,  if  continued,  will  join 
smoothly  the  next  letter. 

The  order  in  which  parts  of  letters  are  made  is  from  left  to  right.  Make  spurs  before 
uprights,  raising  the  pencil  from  the  paper  between  the  two  strokes,  if  necessary,  in  order  to 
avoid  a  rounded  union  of  them. 


23 

The  8  and  9  are  likely  to  prove  troublesome.  The  order  of  strokes  is  indicated  in  the 
fifth  line,  the  direction  of  each  being  downward.  Each  separate  portion  ot  letters  and  figures 
should  be  made  at  a  single  stroke  and  there  should  be  uniform  thickness  of  line. 

Very  careful  practice  of  this  style  is  recommended,  not  only  because  of  its  great  useful- 
ness to  the  draftsman,  but  also  because  it  is  the  foundation  of  the  difficult  Roman  type.  It  is 
not  adapted  to  large  lettering,  but  finds  its  greatest  usefulness  in  notes,  etc.  When  much  mat- 
ter is  to  be  put  into  a  small  space  the  plainer  form  is  better,  as  shown  in  the  last  line.  In  this 
and  other  sheets  of  slant  letters,  draw  accurately  a  slant  line  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner. 

VIII. 
INKING. 

PLATE    7. 

Thus  far  we  have  studied  upright  and  slanted  Gothic  letters,  both  capitals  and  ower  case, 
and  their  modified  forms.  This  Plate  is  a  review  of  these,  and  will  also  introduce  inking.  Be 
careful  to  get  each  line  of  the  titles  symmetrical  about  the  vertical  centre  line,  which,  in  these 
cases,  should  be  drawn  first,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  sheet. 

It  may  here  be  said  that  the  highest  skill  in  spacing  consists  in  ability  to  say  where  a  line 
shall  begin,  so  that  when  written  through  from  beginning  to  end  it  shall  be  bisected  by  the 
centre  line.  The  words  are  first  written  out  on  a  slip  of  paper  so  that  in  some  form  the  whole 
line  may  be  before  the  eye  at  once.  This  should  be  attempted  in  the  short  lines  of  succeeding 
titles. 


24 

Ink  the  second  title,  carefully  observing  the  following,  which  will  apply  to  most  of  the 
subsequent  work : 

1.  The  knowledge  that  lines  are  to  be  finished  in  ink  should  lead  to  no  slighting  of  the 
pencilling. 

"2.  The  ink  should  be  good  India  ink;  the  pen  rather  coarse,  with  smooth  point;  the 
holder  of  large  size,  with  ferrule  of  cork,  rubber,  or  leather — anything  but  smooth  metal.  A 
pen  is  not  at  its  best  till  it  has  been  used  for  a  short  time,  but  it  should  be  thrown  away  as  soon 
as  it  becomes  scratchy;  any  pen  will  give  a  ragged  line  if  held  so  that  one  nib  bears  more 
heavily  upon  the  paper  than  does  the  other,  or  if  it  is  allowed  to  become  sticky  with  dried  ink. 
A  smoother  line  will  be  obtained  if  the  holder  be  carried  at  a  large  angle  with  the  paper  so 
that  only  the  very  point  of  the  pen  shall  be  used.  Until  otherwise  directed  do  not  spread  the 
nibs  of  the  pen,  but  use  it  as  if  It  were  a  stick. 

3.  If  a  line  is  worked  upon  very  long  while  the  ink  is  wet,  the  fibres  of  the  paper  will 
become  loosened,  and  a  blot  will  result. 

4.  In  order  that  the  angle  between  two  lines  may  be  clean-cut,  observe  that — the  pen 
should  be  filled  often,  but  not  as  full  as  it  will  carry;    a  line  should  be  drawn  to  another 
(especially  if  the  letter  be  still  wet)  rather  than  from  it;   in  inking  lower  case  letters  it  is  often 
necessary  to  draw  parts  of  them  in  sections,  as  shown  in  the  different  stages  of  the  n,  Fig   8, 
Plate  10,  the  arrows  showing  the  direction  of  the  strokes 

5.  The  thickness  of  line  for  Gothic  capitals  should  be   not   more  than  one-seventh   the 
vertical  height  of  letters.     The  thickening  of  the  original  pencil  lines  must  be  done  so  as  not 
to  increase  the  total  width  of  letter,  and  so  that  lines  will   join  each  other  as  shown    at   (a), 
Fig.  7,  Plate  10,  and  not  as  at  (b). 


6.  Such  letters  as  are  shown  in  the  last  line  are  to  be  made  with   a   single   stroke   of  the 
pen,  with  no  shading.      Gillott's  404  is  as  fine  a  pen  as  should  be  used.     The  "  ball   pointed" 
pens  are  useful  when  it  is  desired  to  make  this  sort  of  letter  large  or  prominent. 

7.  It  will  be  found  easier  to  make  good  lines  when  drawing  downward,  toward   the  body, 
and  at  first  the  paper  may  be  turned  so  as  to  draw  horizontal  lines  in  that  way,  but  ability  to 
draw  them  with  the  paper  in  proper  position  should  be  cultivated.     Never  turn  the  paper  when 
making  lower  case  letters. 

8.  When  the  title  is  finished  and   the  ink  thoroughly  dry,  erase  the  limiting  and  other 
pencil  lines,  and  look  the  work  over  carefully  for  places  which  may  need  touching  up. 

The  dimensions  for  the  second  title  are  the  same  as  those  for  the  first,  line  for  line. 
For  farther  practice  the  following  examples  may  be  taken,  the  student  to  make  the  proper 
arrangement  of  parts  : 

/  C^V/'  /      (  ( ,  f        62)         ,   '         Q? 

i-tiy.  vy        f/fr/:'c      -/cfr/'   Jf}/<    ,y  -  titnfi-ttMi      Ciint/ic 

•  7  iii.c/i.  /a  /   J'osoJ.  tfcifi.    °1,    /8Q6. 

7  t/  X'  / 


/«e   •/,•/«.  4. 
i-a/c  /r  (.ti-c-n, 


It  is  considered  bad  taste  to  combine  both  upright  and  slant  letters  in  the  title  proper,  but 
appended  notes  may  differ  in  this  respect,  as  shown  in  the  first  title  of  Plate  7. 
See  remarks  on  underscoring,  Pa^e  31. 


26 


IX. 
ROMAN    LETTERS    AND    FIGURES. 

PLATE    8. 

This  is  the  most  exacting  style  and  hardest  to  do  really  well.  The  following  points  — 
read  before  practice  is  begun  —  should  be  of  great  assistance: 

1.  WIDTHS. — In  the  Gothic  letters,  the   C,  F  and   H   are  of  practically  the  same  width. 
One  point  of  difference  between  that  style  and  the  Roman    is   the  addition  in  the  latter  of  the 
spurs  already  mentioned  in  connection  with  Plate  6.     These  increase  the  total  horizontal  dis- 
tance occupied  by  the  letters.     The    Roman    C   has    no   such   spur,  and  hence  no  increase  in 
width ;   the  F  has  spurs  which  increase  the  width  at  the  left  only,  while   the  H  has  an   increase 
at  both  left  and  right.      Thus  we  have  three  different  widths  among  what  we  called  the  normal 
width  Gothic  letters.     The   W,  M,  and  others  of  extra  width,  are  still  given  such   extra  width 
with    the  addition  of  the    spurs    beside.     The    spurs,    therefore,    modify    spacing  rather  than 
essential  form. 

2.  LIGHT  AND  HEAVY   LINES  — All  horizontal  members  are  fine  or  "  hair  "  lines  except 
in  the  2,  5  and  7. 

All  vertical  lines  are  heavy  except  in  the  N,  the  first  member  of  M,  and  the  right  side 
of  U.  All  inclined  lines  extending  upward  to  the  right  are  hair  lines  except  in  Z  and  7.  All 
inclined  lines  extending  upward  to  the  left  are  heavy. 


3.  THE  SPUR  AND  ITS  JUNCTION  WITH  MEMBERS.     The  spur  must  be  a  strictly  hair 
line,  and  accurately  horizontal.     To  leave  a  definite  angle  where  it  joins  members  would  give 
an  unpleasing  stiffness  to  the'letters,  hence  a  curve  is  introduced  which  is  tangent  to  vertical, 
but  not  to  horizontal  lines.     The  correct  form  is  shown  at  '(u)  Fig.  9,  Plate  10,  and  the  incor- 
rect forms  at  (b).     This  curve  must  be  small,  and  must  never  be  drawn  to  the  end  of  the  spur. 
It  is  well  in  practice  to  draw  first  the  members  and  spurs  complete,  then  add  the  curve. 

4.  CURVED  MEMBERS.    Neglect  of  these  is  oftenest  responsible  for  spoiling  Roman  letters. 
The  O  is  still  the  letter  to  be  most  carefully  studied,  all  that  was  said  of  the  Gothic  O 

applying  here.  But  now  the  sides  of  the  letter  are  thickest  at  their  middle  and  rapidly  taper 
each  way  from  that  point.  To  secure  the  correct  form,  first  draw  the  outline  as  for  as  the 
Gothic  O,  making  it  well  rounded  at  the  sides,  then  add  the  inside  lines.  Unless  the  letter  is 
very  wide  as  compared  with  its  height  these  inside  lines  are  perfectly  straight,  slightly  eased  at 
their  ends  by  curves.  Progressive  stages  are  shown  in  Fig.  10,  Plate  10.  Make  special  prac- 
tice of  the  letter  before  beginning  Plate  8,  that  the  characteristics  of  its  curves  may  be 
carried  into  other  curved  letters.  As  some  letters  must  be  higher  and  wider  than  others,  so 
must  the  curved  members  of  Roman  letters  be  thicker  at  the  thickest  part  than  are  the  heavy 
straight  members. 

5.  No  two  heavy  members,  straight  or  curved,  join  or  cross  each  other  except  in  the  Y. 
This  must  be  carefully  observed  in  such  places  as  the  right  side  of  B,  R,  and  3. 

6.  The  second  member  of  M  and  X  laps  over  the  top  of  the  first  member,  and  the  spur- 
at  this  point  is  drawn  at  the  left  only. 

1.     THE   \V.     To   bring  alternate   members   parallel   requires  a  special  study.      Fig.  12,' 
Plate  10,  presents  several  stages  which  show  the  following  order  of  procedure: 


28 

(a  and  b.)  Point  the  space  to  be  occupied  and  start  out  the  first  member,  guessing  at  its 
direction. 

(c.)  Bisect  (point  5)  on  upper  line  the  free  space  between  the  first  member  and  point  2, 
and  place  6  vertically  below  5. 

(d.)      Bisect  the  distance  from  (5  to  3  in  point  7,  and  draw  first  and  second  members. 

(e.)  From  2  draw  the  fourth  member  parallel  to  the  second,  and  work  in  the  third, 
which  will  be  parallel  to  the  first. 

Similar  precautions  are  necessary  in  the  M,  in  order  that  the  middle  point  upon  the  lower 
line  shall  bisect  the  free  space  between  the  first  and  fourth  members. 

The  title  at  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  may  be  inked,  first  having  carefully  outlined  the  let- 
ters in  pencil.  Gillott's  303  pen  is  recommended.  Leave  the  alphabet  and  figures  in  pencil 
outline. 


ITALIC    ROMAN. 

PLATE   9. 

The  slanted,  or  Italic  Roman,  is  much  used  in  titles  and  for  marking  large  features  of  maps. 
For  notes  and  small  portions  of  plans  and  titles  it  is  written  rather  narrow,  and  with  a  slant  or 
"  rake  "  of  about  60°.  These  forms  are  shown  in  the  Plate. 

The  lower  case  letters  will  prove  the  more  difficult.     The  curved  members  are  formed  as 

.described  above  for  the  0.     Be  careful  that  the  inside  lines  of  curves  are  upon  the  slant.     The 

curves  which  end  so  many  of  the  letters  are  like  those  used  for  the  same   purpose  in   Plate  6. 

These,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  a  part  of  the  O  as  shown  in  first  line  of  Plate  9.     It  was  said 


29 

in  connection  with  the  letters  of  Plate  6  that  they  are  the  foundation  for  the  Roman  style. 
The  development  of  the  '(from  the  outline  form  there  shown  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  11.  Plate  10, 
and  all  the  letters  may  be  built  up  in  a  similar  way. 

The  ideal  way  of  writing  this  type  is  to  shade  in  the  letters  with  single  strokes  of  the  pen. 
This  requires  much  practice,  and  should  not  be  attempted  till  skill  is  gained  in  form  and  slant 
by  outlining  each  side  of  heavy  lines  and  filling  in  as  for  capitals. 

The  last  two  lines  may  be  inked. 

For  additional  practice  the  following  may  be  made  into  a  title  : 

Ln  /a  -  /J//,//>.        &c<Ue  WO  /t.  to.  /  en  . 


a  ,- 


fa  k-cn  at  nt<jf/i 


OLD   ENGLISH,   GERMAN   TEXT,  AND   ROUND  WRITING. 

PLATE   11. 

The  Old  English  and  German  Text  are  very  seldom  used  except  in  diplomas,  certificates, 
etc.  The  German  Text,  however,  is  the  foundation  of  "  Round  Writing."  The  points  to  be 
noted  in  these  styles  are  that:  — 

1.      Lines  extending  upward  to  the  right  are  hair  lines. 

•2.     Lines  extending  upward  to  the  left  are  very  heavy. 

3.     Vertical  lines  are  medium  heavy. 


30 

The  governing  idea  may  be  learned  best  by  sharpening  a  pencil  01  crayon  to  a  blunt  chisel 
point  and  using  it  in  such  a  position  that  its  projection  upon  the  paper  is  at  45°  with  the  limit- 
ing lines.  Now  when  the  point  is  moved  upward  to  the  right  or  downward  to  the  left  the  line 
produced  depends  upon  the  thickness  of  the  point ;  when  moved  downward  to  the  right  the 
line  is  as  thick  as  the  point  is  wide;  when  moved  vertically  there  result  tuc  medium  heavy 
lines. 

In  the  German  Text  the  tops  of  long,  upright  parts  may  be  finished  in  two  different  ways ; 
these  are  shown  in  the  H, — capital  and  lower  case,  many  of  the  letters  may  be  made  more 
fanciful  by  continuing  curves,  as  shown  in  the  S. 

Not  all  the  lines  of  the  Text  as  here  shown  can  be  produced  with  the  chisel-pointed  pencil, 
but  a  modification  called  "  Round  Writing"  can  be  so  formed.  This  style  may  be  done  very 
rapidly  when  sufficiently  practiced.  Special  pens  are  on  the  market,  which  are  held  as  described 
above  for  pencil  or  crayon.  They  are  much  like  stub  pens  but  have  specially  formed  points 
and  are  furnished  with  an  attachment  which  is  a  reservoir  for  ink,  feeding  \tslowlyto  the  point, 
thus  making  the  fine  lines  possible.  In  order  to  write  this  as  a  "  running  hand  "  some  of  the 
heavy  lines  must  be  made  on  the  up  stroke.  Unless  the  pen  works  very  well  it  is  difficult  to 
produce  good  lines  in  this  way,  and  it  may  be  better  to  make  all  heavy  lines  with  the  down  stroke, 
though  this  will  necessitate  the  frequent  lifting  of  the  pen  from  the  paper.  The  vertical  lines 
are  likely  to  prove  troublesome  as  the  hand  is  not  in  a.  favorable  position.  The  figures  may  be 
seen  in  Plate  12. 

The  student  who  wishes  to  become  proficient  in  Round  Writing  should  make  a  special 
study  of  it  from  a  work  especially  devoted  to  the  subject. 


XI. 
MISCELLANEOUS  STYLto. 

PLATE    12. 

This  Plate  shows  some  special  styles  which  need  but  brief  comment. 

No.  1.  Backhanded  or  Marking  Letters.  This  style  is  easily  done  with  a  fine,  flexible 
pen,  springing  the  nibs  so  as  to  produce  the  heavy  lines  by  single  strokes. 

No.  2.  Suitable  for  architectural  drawings.  A  coarse  pen  is  best  as  all  strokes  should  be 
made  without  shading,  and  no  lines  should  be  gone  over  more  than  once. 

No.  3.  This,  as  far  as  capitals  are  concerned,  is  the  Italic  Roman  with  short  spurs  and 
with  kerns  neither  vertical  nor  upon  the  general  slant  of  the  letter.  The  slant  is  that  shown  in 
Plate  5.  The  lower-case  letters  differ  considerably  from  any  previously  shown.  In  addition 
to  general  outlines  note  that  letters  reaching  to  the  top  line  have  the  usual  spur,  while  those 
reaching  only  to  the  middle  line  have  curves  instead;  the  curves  are  rather  sharply  turned, 
and  the  shading  is  carried  just  around  them,  the  letters  resembling  the  Round  Writing  in  this 
respect.  This  style  is  not  adapted  to  rapid  execution  and  can  hardly  be  recomrnended  where 
much  lettering  is  to  be  done. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  are  shown  a  few  groups  of  words,  the  last  two  being  under- 
scored. It  is  quite  common  to  draw  heavy  black  or  red  lines  beneath  words  in  notes  and 
remarks  upon  working  drawings.  They  should  always  be  drawn  at  least  g-V  inch  below  the 
line  and  should  be  broken  when  necessary  to  avoid  crossing  letters  which  extend  below  the 


iiiciiiic.0   „     ..inpie  titles  like  those  of  Plate  7   are  often  underscored.      When  this  is 
done  the  spacing  between  them  may  be  increased. 

Each  style  here  shown  may  be  the  subject  of  practice  upon  a  sheet  by  itself,  devoting  a 

part  of  the  sheet  to  the  alphabet  and  the  remainder  to  groups  of  words. 


XII. 

ORNAMENTATION. 

PLATE    13. 

Ornamentation  is  not  now  very  common.  It  has  its  appropriate  place,  however,  and 
involves :  — 

1.  Fanciful  forms  of  letters. 

2.  Striking  arrangement  of  parts  of  title.     When  lines  are  written  in  curves,  or  at  an 
angle  with  the  horizontal  the  upright  members  of  letters  are  better  made  vertical ;    but  in  seals, 
etc.,  where  many  degrees  of  arc  are  covered  they  must  be  written  radially,  though  this  leads  to 
top-heaviness. 

3.  Geometric  figures,  scroll-work,  flowers,  etc.     These   may  be   for  ornament  purely  or 
may  serve  to  fill  up  undesirable  spaces. 

Working  drawings  are  finished  with  a"  perfectly  plain,  heavy  line  for  a  border,  with  no 
corner  ornaments.  Large  maps  and  display  drawings  may  have  more  elaborate  borders  and 
ornamental  corners,  some  suggestions  for  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Plate. 


32 

Ornamental  features  are  usually  symmetrical  abouc  sorm.  axis;  n.  ^~..  ^u. ..0, 
first  and  sketch  in  the  half  of  the  ornament  lying  to  one  side  of  it;  lay  a  {-'  ce  of  tracing 
paper  over  and  trace  the  work  upon  it,  using  a  medium  soft  pencil.  Now  t  m  the  tracing 
bottom  side  up  on  the  other  side  of  the  axis,  bringing  the  traced  position  of  the  axis  into  its 
former  position,  and  with  a  hard  point  go  over  the  lines,  thus  transferring  them  to  the  paper. 
The  whole  may  now  be  strengthened  in  pencil  and,  if  found  satisfactory,  inked.  Never  ink 
one-half  of  an  ornament  before  the  other  half  is  firmly  pencilled. 

Much  elaboration  should  be  avoided.  Combinations  of  straight  lines  of  different  widths 
are  usually  sufficient  for  borders.  Very  large  maps  require  that  some  area  be  occupied  by  the 
border;  then  curved  lines  may  be  introduced,  otherwise  too  many  straight  lines,  or  too  great 
spaces  between  lines  would  be  necessary. 


CONCLUSION. 

While  simple  styles  and  arrangements  of  letters  are  most  common  and  in  general  in  best 
taste,  the  student  is  advised  to  make  a  collection  of  more  elaborate  forms.  The  pages  of 
magazines  and  periodicals  will  furnish  much  in  this  line ;  and  while  not  all  that  is  printed  is 
worthy  of  imitation,  such  a  collection  is  likely  at  some  time  to  prove  very  valuable. 

It  is  common  to  get  an  erroneous  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  rapidity  in  lettering.  No  such 
speed  as  is  reached  in  ordinary  writing  should  be  aimed  at  in  any  style.  Rather  keep  in  mind 
that  first  of  all  the  correct  form  of  letters  must  be  secured,  doing  them  always  free-hand  and 


34 

with  as  much  deliberation  as  is  necessary.  One  should  aim  at  the  accurate  placing  of  lines, 
thus  keeping  free  from  necessity  of  erasures,  rather  than  at  rapidity  of  motion.  After  a  care- 
ful practice  of  the  styles  shown  in  the  Plates  the  student  should  begin  to  practice  simple  styles 
with  the  pen  alone,  using  the  pencil  only  to  draw  the  limiting  lines  ;  these  should  never  be 
omitted,  even  though  but  one  word  is  to  be  formed.  In  doing  lower-case  letters  expert  letter- 
ers  sometimes  omit  the  top  line,  but  the  other  two  should  always  be  used. 


PLATE   I 

. 

EXERCISE   I.  EXERCISE  2.  EXERCISE  3 

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PLATE  IO 


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Fig.  I  Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fiq.  5 


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fa,)          fJ>,i 
Fig. 6  Fig.7 


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PLATE  II 


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German   Text 

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8 


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Vtt?X 

'Round  Wr/t/nq. 


PLATE  12 


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